Skip to content
Research Article Open access CC BY 4.0

Risk Assessment of Lead Exposure from Cervid Meat in Norwegian Consumers and in Hunting Dogs

Helle Katrine Knutsen, Anne Lise Brantsæter, Christiane K. Fæste, Anders Ruus, Cathrine Thomsen, Jannceche Utne Skåre, Heidi Amlund, Augustine Arukwe, Gunnar S. Eriksen

European Journal of Nutrition & Food Safety · pp. 104–107 · Published 26 Feb 2019

10.9734/ejnfs/2019/v9i230047

Abstract

The Norwegian Food Safety Authority requested the Norwegian Scientific Committee for Food Safety (VKM) to assess the risk of lead exposure to the Norwegian population by consumption of cervid meat, including any subpopulations with an increased risk. Further, VKM was asked to describe the distribution of lead from ammunition in the carcass and to estimate the tissue area associated with the wound channel that has to be removed in order to reduce the risk. VKM was also asked to present, if any, other appropriate measures in addition to removing tissue in order to limit the content of lead residues from ammunition in cervid meat. Finally, VKM was asked to assess the significance of lead exposure to the health of dogs if they were fed with trimmings from the wound channel.  Consumption of cervid meat in Norway: Lead exposure from cervid meat can be seen as an addition to the exposure from other food sources. According to a recent exposure assessment by EFSA, grains and grain products, milk and dairy products, non-alcoholic beverages, vegetables and vegetable products are the major dietary lead sources in the general population.  According to the most recent (2012) representative national dietary survey in Norway, mean game (including cervid) meat consumption was low, approximately 5-7 meals per year. However, in other Norwegian population studies including hunters, a large proportion (70%) of the participants consumed cervid meat at least once a month or more often. No information on cervid meat consumption among Norwegian children has been found. However, it can be expected that children eat cervid meat equally often as the rest of the family. Negative health effects associated with lead exposure: Lead concentration in blood is considered to be a good indicator of lead exposure. Lead exposure in Europe has decreased dramatically over the last three decades. In Norwegian studies, the mean or median concentrations of lead in blood were from 11 to 27 µg/L, which is in the same range as studies in most European countries the last 10 years. Blood lead concentrations were lower in pregnant women than in other adult population groups in Norway. No information on blood lead levels in Norwegian children has been found. Neurodevelopmental effects and increased blood pressure in adults were critical effects of lead exposure identified by both EFSA and JECFA. Children are more sensitive than adults to the effects of lead because their brain is under development. Increased blood pressure is not an adverse outcome by itself, but it is associated with increased risk of cardiovascular mortality. In addition, EFSA pointed out chronic kidney disease as a sensitive endpoint in adults.  Overview of reference values for blood lead concentrations associated with increased blood pressure and increased prevalence of chronic kidney disease in adults, and neurodevelopmental effects in children: Lead exposure in cervid meat consumers: Associations between game meat consumption and blood lead concentration have been studied in four population studies in Norway. In the three studies performed in the years 2003-2005, a significant association between game meat consumption and higher blood lead concentration was only seen in the subgroup of male participants in one of the studies (the Norwegian Fish and Game study). In the fourth study, the Norwegian Game and Lead study conducted in 2012, the median blood lead concentration was in the lower range of medians measured in most European and Norwegian studies over the past 10 years. This study also showed association between cervid meat consumption and concentrations of lead in blood. Those with frequent (monthly or more often) cervid meat consumption had about 30% higher average levels of lead in blood than those with less frequent consumption. However, there was a wide range, and many participants with high or long-lasting game meat intake had low blood lead concentrations. The increase in blood lead concentrations seemed to be associated with consumption of minced cervid meat, particularly purchased minced meat. Blood lead concentration was significantly higher in participants who reported self-assembling of lead-containing bullets.  Risk characterization: The blood lead concentrations measured in participants in the Norwegian population studies are in the range of, and partly exceeding, the reference values for increased risk of high blood pressure and increased prevalence of chronic kidney disease in adults, and for neurodevelopmental effects in children. The additional lead exposure from cervid meat in frequent (monthly or more often) consumers of such meat is therefore of concern. At the individual level, the risk for adverse effect is likely to be small. At present lead levels, adults with for example normal blood pressure will most likely not experience any clinical symptoms by a small increase, although it may add to the burden of those individuals who are at risk of experiencing cardiovascular disease. A small reduction in the intelligence of children will not be notable at the individual level, but at the population level it can for instance increase the proportion not able to graduate from school. Lead exposure was declining in the population on which the reference value for increased prevalence of chronic kidney disease was based. EFSA noted that this reference value (15 µg/L) is likely to be numerically lower than necessary. The implications of having a concurrent blood lead concentration above the reference value cannot fully be interpreted, since it is not known when and at which level of lead exposure the kidney disease was initiated. However, an eventual increased risk of chronic kidney disease would be higher among those who consume cervid meat regularly or often than those who rarely consume such meat. For these reasons, continued effort is needed in order to reduce lead exposure in the population. Exposure reducing measurements: Removal of meat around the wound channel reduces the lead exposure from cervid meat consumption. Lead fragmenting and distribution is dependent on several variables, and there are no available studies in moose. The available studies do not allow a firm conclusion on the amount of meat needed to be trimmed around the wound channel in order to remove lead originating from the ammunition. Other possible measures to reduce lead exposure from cervid meat would be to use lead based ammunition with low fragmentation or ammunition without lead.  Risk of negative health effects in dogs: In dogs, metallic lead fragments most often pass through the gastrointestinal tract unretained. If larger lead fragments or particles are retained in the gastrointestinal tract for prolonged periods of time, this can result in a continual exposure and toxicity.  A daily dose around 1 mg lead acetate/kg bw is shown to increase the blood pressure in dogs after a few days of exposure, and is considered as a Lowest Observed Effect Level (LOEL). This corresponds to a lead acetate concentration of 10-20 mg/kg in fresh meat or offal when fed daily to dogs. The uptake of lead from small metallic lead fragments in contaminated cervid products is probably lower than that of lead acetate. However, high metallic lead concentrations are expected to be present in meat trimmed from the wound channel. Even when a lower absorption of metallic lead than of lead acetate is taken into consideration, the risk for chronic health effects in dogs fed on trimmings of meat/offal from the wound channel from lead killed cervids can be considered as high. On the other hand, the risk for adverse effects after a single exposure of lead contaminated meat must be considered as low. 

Lead exposure cervid/game meat consumption lead-based ammunition health risk

References (116)

  1. 1 Preventing lead poisoning in young children [DOI]
  2. 2 Absorption and Retention of Lead by Infants [DOI]
  3. 3 Toxicokinetics of Bone Lead [DOI]
  4. 4 German Environmental Survey 1998 (GerES III): environmental pollutants in blood of the German population [DOI]
  5. 5 Validity of a new food frequency questionnaire for pregnant women in the Norwegian Mother and Child Cohort Study (MoBa) [DOI]
  6. 6 Methodological challenges when monitoring the diet of pregnant women in a large study: experiences from the Norwegian Mother and Child Cohort Study (MoBa) [DOI]
  7. 7 Separation and preconcentration procedures for the determination of lead using spectrometric techniques: A review [DOI]
  8. 8 Validation of a method to quantify chromium, cadmium, manganese, nickel and lead in human whole blood, urine, saliva and hair samples by electrothermal atomic absorption spectrometry [DOI]
  9. 9 Lead, mercury, and cadmium in blood and their relation to diet among Swedish adults [DOI]
  10. 10 Environmental Lead Toxicity: Nutrition As a Component of Intervention [DOI]
  11. 11 Dietary exposure to brominated flame retardants correlates with male blood levels in a selected group of Norwegians with a wide range of seafood consumption [DOI]
  12. 12 Hunting with lead: Association between blood lead levels and wild game consumption [DOI]
  13. 13 Percutaneous absorption of inorganic lead compounds [DOI]
  14. 14 Air exposure assessment and biological monitoring of manganese and other major welding fume components in welders [DOI]
  15. 15 Implications for wildlife and humans of dietary exposure to lead from fragments of lead rifle bullets in deer shot in the UK [DOI]
  16. 16 Lead in Plasma and Whole Blood from Lead-Exposed Children [DOI]
  17. 17 Lead-Free Hunting Rifle Ammunition: Product Availability, Price, Effectiveness, and Role in Global Wildlife Conservation [DOI]
  18. 18 Bioaccessibility of Pb from Ammunition in Game Meat Is Affected by Cooking Treatment [DOI]
  19. 19 Dietary mercury exposure in a population with a wide range of fish consumption — Self-capture of fish and regional differences are important determinants of mercury in blood [DOI]
  20. 20 Consumption of lead-shot cervid meat and blood lead concentrations in a group of adult Norwegians [DOI]
  21. 21 Availability and comparability of human biomonitoring data across Europe: A case-study on blood-lead levels [DOI]
  22. 22 Blood Lead Levels and Dietary Calcium Intake in 1- to 11-Year-Old Children: The Second National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1976 to 1980 [DOI]
  23. 23 INVESTIGATIONS INTO LEAD FROM MOTOR VEHICLES
  24. 24 The Uptake of Lead by Children in Differing Environments [DOI]
  25. 25 Wundballistik [DOI]
  26. 26 Placental transfer of lead and its effects on the newborn [DOI]
  27. 27 Determining Tissue-Lead Levels in Large Game Mammals Harvested with Lead Bullets: Human Health Concerns [DOI]
  28. 28 Lead in primary teeth from Norway: changes in lead levels from the 1970s to the 1990s [DOI]
  29. 29 Metal concentrations in blood and hair in pregnant females in southern Sweden.
  30. 30 Lead transport and binding by human erythrocytes in vitro [DOI]
  31. 31 The percutaneous absorption of lead-203 in humans from cosmetic preparations containing lead acetate, as assessed by whole-body counting and other techniques [DOI]
  32. 32 Environmental lead exposure and activity of δ-aminolevulinic acid dehydratase (ALA-D) in maternal and cord blood [DOI]
  33. 33 Experimental oral lead toxicity in young dogs
  34. 34 EXCRETION OF LEAD IN RAT BILE ‐ THE ROLE OF GLUTATHIONE [DOI]
  35. 35 Elevation of Lead in Human Blood from its Controlled Ingestion in Beer [DOI]
  36. 36 Blood pressure elevation in young dogs during low-level lead poisoning [DOI]
  37. 37 Effects of vitamin D on the absorption and retention of lead [DOI]
  38. 38 Lead and calcium transport in human erythrocyte [DOI]
  39. 39 Metabolism of lead-210 in juvenile and adult rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) [DOI]
  40. 40 THE EFFECTS OF AGE AND DIET ON THE ABSORPTION OF LEAD FROM THE GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT OF DOGS [DOI]
  41. 41 Lead toxicosis in a puppy.
  42. 42 On the kinetics of lead in the human body [DOI]
  43. 43 Intestinal Accumulation of Lead Salts and Milk Lead by Suckling Rats [DOI]
  44. 44 δ‐Aminolaevulinic acid dehydratase as an index of lead toxicity. Time for a reappraisal? [DOI]
  45. 45 Blood lead, urinary delta aminolevulinic acid and the diagnosis of lead poisoning in dogs [DOI]
  46. 46 Effects of chronic oral lead administration in young beagle dogs.
  47. 47 Casarett and Doull's Toxicology: The Basic Science of Poisons [DOI]
  48. 48 Toxicological profile for lead [DOI]
  49. 49 Evaluation of certain food additives and contaminants. Forty-first report of the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives.
  50. 50 Peer Reviewed: Reducing Children's Risk from Lead in Soil [DOI]
  51. 51 Cohort profile: The Norwegian Mother and Child Cohort Study (MoBa) [DOI]
  52. 52 Nanoparticle Uptake by the Rat Gastrointestinal Mucosa: Quantitation and Particle Size Dependency [DOI]
  53. 53 Gender differences in the disposition and toxicity of metals [DOI]
  54. 54 Kinetic analysis of lead metabolism in healthy humans. [DOI]
  55. 55 Basic animal nutrition and feeding
  56. 56 A rationale for lowering the blood lead action level from 10 to 2μg/dL [DOI]
  57. 57 An Age-Specific Kinetic Model of Lead Metabolism in Humans [DOI]
  58. 58 Low iron stores are related to higher blood concentrations of manganese, cobalt and cadmium in non-smoking, Norwegian women in the HUNT 2 study [DOI]
  59. 59 Lead Bullet Fragments in Venison from Rifle-Killed Deer: Potential for Human Dietary Exposure [DOI]
  60. 60 Iron status influences trace element levels in human blood and serum [DOI]
  61. 61 Skin Absorption of Inorganic Lead (PbO) and the Effect of Skin Cleansers [DOI]
  62. 62 Role of dietary patterns for dioxin and PCB exposure [DOI]
  63. 63 Effect of DMT1 knockdown on iron, cadmium, and lead uptake in Caco-2 cells [DOI]
  64. 64 Effect of food Intake and fasting on gastrointestinal lead absorption in humans [DOI]
  65. 65 Effects of Meals and Meal Times on Uptake of Lead from the Gastrointestinal Tract in Humans [DOI]
  66. 66 Bioavailability of soilborne lead in adults, by stable isotope dilution. [DOI]
  67. 67 Potential Hazard to Human Health from Exposure to Fragments of Lead Bullets and Shot in the Tissues of Game Animals [DOI]
  68. 68 Effect of Particle Size on Lead Absorption from the Gut [DOI]
  69. 69 Self-Reported Dietary Supplement Use Is Confirmed by Biological Markers in the Norwegian Mother and Child Cohort Study (MoBa) [DOI]
  70. 70 Exploration of biomarkers for total fish intake in pregnant Norwegian women [DOI]
  71. 71 Stable lead isotopes in environmental health with emphasis on human investigations [DOI]
  72. 72 Influence of Maternal Bone Lead Burden and Calcium Intake on Levels of Lead in Breast Milk over the Course of Lactation [DOI]
  73. 73 Consumption of fish from a contaminated lake strongly affects the concentrations of polybrominated diphenyl ethers and hexabromocyclododecane in serum [DOI]
  74. 74 Plasma Volume Expansion in Pregnancy: Implications for Biomarkers in Population Studies [DOI]
  75. 75 Heavy metal ions in wines: meta-analysis of target hazard quotients reveal health risks [DOI]
  76. 76 Lead shot from hunting as a source of lead in human blood [DOI]
  77. 77 Bullet-derived lead in tissues of the wild boar (Sus scrofa) and red deer (Cervus elaphus) [DOI]
  78. 78 Transfer of lead from shot pellets to game meat during cooking [DOI]
  79. 79 Are lead-free hunting rifle bullets as effective at killing wildlife as conventional lead bullets? A comparison based on wound size and morphology [DOI]
  80. 80 δ-Aminolevulinic acid dehydratase genotype predicts toxic effects of lead on workers’ peripheral nervous system [DOI]
  81. 81 Lead Metabolism in the Normal Human: Stable Isotope Studies [DOI]
  82. 82 Age-related susceptibility to MPTP-induced neurotoxicity in mice.
  83. 83 Absorption of different lead compounds [DOI]
  84. 84 The use of sweat to monitor lead absorption through the skin [DOI]
  85. 85 Plasma and Blood Lead in Humans: Capacity-Limited Binding to δ-Aminolevulinic Acid Dehydratase and Other Lead-Binding Components [DOI]
  86. 86 Pulmonary retention of lead: An experimental study in man [DOI]
  87. 87 Organic Lead Toxicology [DOI]
  88. 88 SKIN ABSORPTION OF LEAD [DOI]
  89. 89 Review of lead toxicology relevant to the safety assessment of lead acetate as a hair colouring [DOI]
  90. 90 Fish liver and seagull eggs, vitamin D‐rich foods with a shadow: Results from the Norwegian Fish and Game Study [DOI]
  91. 91 The extent of lead fragmentation observed in deer culled by sharpshooting [DOI]
  92. 92 Active transport of lead by the calcium pump in human red cell ghosts. [DOI]
  93. 93 The Lead Content of Blood Serum [DOI]
  94. 94 Evaluation of selected publications on reference values for lead in blood [DOI]
  95. 95 The Pathologic Anatomy of Lead Poisoning in Dogs [DOI]
  96. 96 High affinity of lead for fetal haemoglobin. [DOI]
  97. 97 Metal Concentrations in Human Pancreatic Juice [DOI]
  98. 98 Historical perspective on lead biokinetic models. [DOI]
  99. 99 The Metabolism of Lead in Man in Health and Disease [DOI]
  100. 100 Acute effects of lead on renal electrolyte excretion and plasma renin activity [DOI]
  101. 101 Toxic effects of metals
  102. 102 Scientific Opinion on acrylamide in food [DOI]
  103. 103 Bullet Fragments in Deer Remains: Implications for Lead Exposure in Avian Scavengers [DOI]
  104. 104 Bullet Fragmentation and Lead Deposition in White-Tailed Deer and Domestic Sheep [DOI]
  105. 105 Lead Poisoning in White-tailed Sea Eagles: Causes and Approaches to Solutions in Germany [DOI]
  106. 106 Clinical and laboratory findings in small companion animals with lead poisoning: 347 cases (1977-1986) [DOI]
  107. 107 Lead poisoning in small companion animals: an update (1987-1992).
  108. 108 Gunshot Wounds: a Source of Lead in the Environment [DOI]
  109. 109 Absorption of 212 pb from the Gastrointestinal Tract of Man [DOI]
  110. 110 Blood lead levels, clinico-pathological findings and erythrocyte metabolism in dogs from different habitats.
  111. 111 Success in Developing Lead-free, Expanding-nose Centerfire Bullets [DOI]
  112. 112 Bleibelastung von Wildbret durch Verwendung von Bleimunition bei der Jagd
  113. 113 Absorption of 203Pb from gastrointestinal tract of man [DOI]
  114. 114 Storage and Excretion of Lead 210 in Dogs [DOI]
  115. 115 Lead poisoning in a dog--a case report.
  116. 116 Ingestion of Lead from Spent Ammunition: Implications for Wildlife and Humans Ingestion of Lead from Spent Ammunition: Implications for Wildlife and Humans. Richard T Watson , Mark Fuller , Mark Pokras , Grainger Hunt . 2009. The Peregrine Fund. Boise, Idaho. 383 pages. ISBN 0-9619389-5-7. Paperback, $25.00. [DOI]

Cited by 15

Lead Contamination in Meat and Offal from Game (Ruminants), Destined for Raw Feeding of Dogs and Retailed in Austria

P. Paulsen, Sarah Lindinger, Karin Eder-Rohm · International Symposium on Privacy Enhancing Technologies · 2024

Analysis of number, size and spatial distribution of rifle bullet-derived lead fragments in hunted roe deer using computed tomography

A. Haase, Miriam Sen, C. Gremse · Discover Food · 2023

Lead concentrations in commercial dogfood containing pheasant in the UK

D. Pain, R. Green, Nicole Bates · Ambio · 2023

Elevated lead exposure in Australian hunting dogs during a deer hunting season.

J. Hampton, Mia L. Cobb, Simon D. Toop · Environmental Pollution · 2023

Lead exposure in dogs fed game meat and offal from culled invasive species in El Palmar National Park, Argentina

Valentina Fernández, Andrea Caselli, Agostina Tammone · Environmental science and pollution research international · 2021

Wildlife, human and environmental costs of using lead ammunition: An economic review and analysis

D. Pain, I. Dickie, R. Green · Ambio · 2019

Heads in the sand: public health and ecological risks of lead-based bullets for wildlife shooting in Australia

J. Hampton, M. Laidlaw, E. Buenz · Wildlife research (East Melbourne) · 2018

Lead intoxication in dogs: risk assessment of feeding dogs trimmings of lead-shot game

H. R. Høgåsen, R. Ørnsrud, H. Knutsen · BMC Veterinary Research · 2016

European Mammal Exposure to Lead from Ammunition and Fishing Weights Sources

Louise Chiverton, Ruth Cromie · SSRN Electronic Journal · 2022

Trace elements in whole blood in the general population in Trøndelag County, Norway: The HUNT3 Survey

Anica Simić, Ailin Falkmo Hansen, Tore Syversen · Science of The Total Environment · 2022

Showing 10 of 15 known citations — external sources report more than can currently be individually listed.

Related research

Article metrics

Real usage data collected on this platform.

68

Page views

0

PDF downloads

29

Outbound clicks

15

Citations

Views over time

Views by country

Approximate, from request IP at view time — not citizenship or institution. Countries with fewer than 5 views are grouped as "Other".

Traffic sources

Referring site, by host.

Views and downloads exclude known bots/crawlers. Citations combines this platform's own DOI-resolved index with each external source's own reported total — see Cited by above for individually listed citing works. Last refreshed 0 seconds ago.