Spring Inventory and Sustainability in the Northwestern Himalaya: Environmental Drivers, Degradation Patterns and Implications for Water Security

Abstract

Mountain springs are important freshwater sources in the Indian Himalayan Region, supporting drinking water supply, agriculture and ecosystems; however, their sustainability is increasingly affected by climate variability and anthropogenic land-use change. This study provides a district-scale inventory and status assessment of springs in Mandi district, Himachal Pradesh, India, with emphasis on distribution, functional condition and surrounding land-use association. A field survey was conducted across all 11 development blocks to document spring locations, spring condition and associated land use/land cover. A total of 1,401 springs were inventoried, with block-wise counts ranging from 99 in Chauntra to 157 in Balh and an average of 127.36 ± 18.01 springs. Overall, 38.0% of springs were perennial, 39.9% were seasonal and 22.1% were dried up. The highest proportion of perennial springs was recorded in Chauntra (47%), followed by Drang (41%), whereas Sundernagar recorded the lowest proportion (31%). Seasonal springs were dominant in Sundernagar and Seraj (44%), and dried-up springs reached 25% in Mandi, Balh and Dharampur blocks. Perennial springs were mostly associated with agricultural (63-91%) and forested landscapes, whereas many dried-up springs in several blocks were associated with built-up areas. The findings indicate the need to protect recharge zones, conserve forested catchments, promote sustainable agricultural practices and integrate spring inventories into watershed management for improved mountain water security.