Factors Influencing Implementation of Community-led Total Sanitation in Rural Areas, Isiolo County, Kenya

Abstract

Community-Led Total Sanitation (CLTS) is a primary behaviour-centred framework for eliminating open defecation in low-resource settings, although its sustainability in nomadic settings remains constrained. This study evaluated the multidimensional social, economic, and technological factors influencing CLTS implementation and retention in rural areas of Isiolo County, Kenya. Employing a mixed-methods cross-sectional design, data were collected from 301 randomly sampled household heads (77.7% response rate) across five purposively selected rural wards using structured questionnaires, focus group discussions, and key informant interviews. Quantitative data were analysed via descriptive statistics and multiple linear regression using IBM SPSS v26.0, while qualitative transcripts underwent thematic content analysis for empirical triangulation. Diagnostic tests confirmed data normality, linearity, and the absence of multicollinearity, while a Cronbach’s alpha of 0.799 verified instrument reliability. Socio-demographically, household participation was dominated by women (71.4%), while 66.5% of respondents were aged 26–45 years. Severe literacy and financial bottlenecks were identified: 50.5% of household heads had no formal education, 44.2% relied entirely on mobile pastoralist livelihoods, and 84.0% earned monthly incomes below KES 10,000. Technologically, simple unimproved pit latrines were the dominant facility type (70.8%), while 18.9% practised open defecation and 34.9% lacked basic handwashing infrastructure. Furthermore, deep-seated cultural taboos and a 30.5% unskilled artisan base accelerated infrastructure failure. Multiple linear regression analysis established that social, economic, and technological factors collectively explained 55.1% of the total variation in CLTS implementation outcomes (R2 = 0.551, F (3, 297) = 121.70, p < .001). Social factors had the strongest positive predictive effect (B = 0.412, β = 0.465, t = 7.10, p < .001), followed by economic factors (B = 0.298, β = 0.322, t = 4.89, p < .001) and technological factors (B = 0.167, β = 0.185, t = 3.41, p = .001). Sustaining open-defecation-free status requires moving beyond punitive administrative enforcement towards gender-inclusive triggering models, localised technical training for artisans, climate-resilient designs, and decentralised microfinance options to reduce post-certification sanitation slippage.