Reading Difficulties in Primary Classrooms in Sri Lanka: A Review of Empirical Studies

Abstract

Reading difficulties in primary education remain a constant concern in Sri Lanka. Early reading challenges have long-term consequences for academic achievement and educational participation. This article reviews empirical studies that examine the causes of reading difficulties among primary school students in the Sri Lankan context. Adopting a narrative review approach, a collection of the article evidence related to home, socioeconomic, health, cultural, structural, sociolinguistic, cognitive, instructional, and curriculum-related influences on Sinhala reading development. The review indicates that reading difficulties do not arise from isolated learner deficits. Instead, they emerge through the interaction of limited home literacy exposure, socioeconomic disadvantage, child health constraints, and disrupted learning environments. Linguistic factors also play a significant role. These include the structural complexity of the Sinhala language and the persistence of diglossia, referring to the ongoing gap between spoken and written forms, which places additional demands on learners during the acquisition of reading and writing skills. Empirical studies further highlight weaknesses in phonological processing and akshara recognition. These difficulties are often misunderstood or insufficiently addressed within classroom instruction. Instructional limitations intensify these challenges. Such limitations include inconsistent early identification, fragmented reading instruction, delayed introduction of analytic decoding skills, and curriculum-related gaps. The synthesis highlights the need for linguistically informed, contextually responsive, and sustained approaches to early literacy development. Implications are discussed for educational policy, classroom practice, and future research, with emphasis on early screening, curriculum reform, teacher professional development, and evidence-based instructional strategies. By consolidating existing empirical evidence, this review provides a comprehensive understanding of the multifaceted causes of reading difficulties in Sinhala and offers direction for improving literacy outcomes in Sri Lankan primary education.