Radon Risks in the Rare Earth Industry: A Critical Review of Exposure Pathways, Health Impacts and Policy Gaps

Abstract

The accelerating demand for rare earth elements (REEs) to fuel clean energy and high-tech industries has sparked a resurgence in mining and processing activities worldwide. While the strategic and economic significance of REEs is well recognized, the radiological hazards associated with their extraction—especially from thorium- and uranium-bearing ores like monazite and bastnäsite—remain critically understudied. This review highlights radon emissions as a neglected occupational and environmental health issue within the REE supply chain. It consolidates evidence on radon generation mechanisms, exposure pathways during different production stages, and the health outcomes tied to chronic radon inhalation. Epidemiological findings from regions such as Bayan Obo and Nam Xe are presented alongside an evaluation of international regulatory frameworks, which reveal striking inconsistencies and gaps in radon-specific protections. The analysis identifies systemic deficiencies including limited monitoring mandates, outdated exposure thresholds, and inadequate community engagement. A comprehensive policy framework including modernized exposure limits, continuous surveillance, classification of REE wastes as radiological hazards, long-term health and environmental tracking, and proactive stakeholder education is proposed. Bridging these regulatory and awareness gaps is essential to ensure that the push for REEs does not impose avoidable health burdens on workers and local populations.