Tracing the Current Status of Gender inequality in Indian Primary, Upper Primary, Secondary and Higher Secondary Education: A State-specific Analysis

Abstract

Gender equality in education is essential for human capital formation, social justice, and inclusive economic growth. Despite sustained policy efforts, gender disparities persist across Indian states, particularly at higher levels of education. This study examines the extent and determinants of gender inequality in education across Indian states from 2011–12 to 2024–25, focusing on primary to higher secondary levels. Using state-level panel data from UDISE+, the Census, National Sample Survey, and other government sources, gender inequality is measured through Gross Enrollment Ratios (GER). Descriptive statistics and panel regression analysis reveal that gender parity has largely been achieved at the primary level due to improved access and targeted interventions, but disparities re-emerge at secondary and higher secondary levels because of retention and dropout challenges. Female literacy emerges as the most significant factor in reducing gender gaps, supported by the availability of female teachers, school access, and women’s workforce participation, while infrastructure alone proves insufficient. The study highlights substantial interstate variation and emphasizes the need for state-specific, evidence-based policies to achieve sustainable gender equality in education.