Sea Snakes of India: A Review on Diversity, Ecology and Conservation

Abstract

Sea snakes (family Elapidae, subfamilies Hydrophiinae and Laticaudinae) constitute a remarkable evolutionary radiation of secondarily aquatic reptiles adapted to nearshore and pelagic marine environments across the Indo-Pacific Ocean. India, with its 7,516-kilometre coastline encompassing the Arabian Sea, Bay of Bengal, Lakshadweep Sea, and the territorial waters surrounding the Andaman and Nicobar Archipelago, supports approximately 26 species of sea snakes, making it one of the most significant sea snake bioregions in the world. Despite their ecological importance as mesopredators in tropical and subtropical marine food webs, Indian sea snakes remain insufficiently studied relative to their global significance. This review synthesises current knowledge on the systematics and taxonomy, biogeography, morphological and physiological adaptations, dietary ecology, reproductive biology, venom biochemistry, and conservation status of sea snakes occurring in Indian waters. A comprehensive literature survey spanning 2000–2026 was conducted across multiple academic databases, revealing persistent knowledge gaps in population ecology, molecular diversity, and long-term trend monitoring for Indian populations. The major documented threats include incidental capture in artisanal and industrial fisheries, coastal habitat degradation, coral reef bleaching driven by climate change, and marine pollution. Most Indian sea snake species are listed in Schedule I of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, affording them substantial legal protection, but enforcement in the marine context remains inadequate and targeted conservation programmes are largely absent. This review identifies priority research directions and recommends strengthened multi-stakeholder conservation strategies, including marine protected area expansion, fisheries management reform, and community-based monitoring initiatives. Strengthening India's contribution to global sea snake research is essential given the country's biogeographic position at the confluence of three major ocean systems.