Production Performance of Smallholder Upland and Swamp Rice Farmers by Gender in Ebonyi State, Nigeria

Abstract

Aims: The study examined the production performance of smallholder upland and swamp rice farmers by gender in Ebonyi State, Nigeria. It aimed to describe the socio-economic characteristics of male and female farmers in relation to the technology gap and estimate their production functions across rice production ecologies. Study Design: A cross-sectional survey design was adopted, which integrated the use of descriptive statistics and econometric tools to analyze gender differences in production outcomes. Place and Duration of Study: The study was conducted in Ebonyi State, Nigeria, covering the North, Central, and South agricultural zones, from January to July 2025. Methodology: A multi-stage sampling technique was used in selecting 180 rice farmers, 72 upland and 108 swamp, stratified equally by gender. Primary data were gathered using structured questionnaires. Descriptive statistics were used for socio-economic profiling. The Cobb-Douglas production function estimated productivity levels, while the Chow test assessed gender-based structural differences. The Technology Gap Ratio (TGR) measures the extent of technology adoption. Results: The majority of farmers were married, with male swamp farmers recording the highest rate (77.8%). Female swamp farmers had the highest TGR (92.42%), suggesting greater technology adoption, especially among those in cooperatives (TGR = 115.01%). For male upland farmers, farm size, seeds, fertilizer, and agrochemicals significantly influenced output. Female upland farmers were affected by farm size, seeds, and fertilizer, while capital had a negative effect. In swamp systems, male output was influenced by seeds, labour, and capital, while female output depended on farm size and capital. Returns to scale were increasing for male and female upland (RTS = 2.605; 2.751) and male swamp farmers (1.441), but decreasing for female swamp farmers (0.523). The Chow test confirmed significant gender-based structural differences. Conclusion: Gender and production systems significantly influence productivity. Gender-responsive policies are needed to enhance women’s access to land, inputs, and extension support in swamp systems.