Phosphorus Dynamics in Terrestrial and Aquatic Ecosystems: Processes, Challenges and Management Perspectives

Abstract

Phosphorus (P) is a fundamental macronutrient that regulates primary productivity, biodiversity and ecosystem sustainability. Unlike nitrogen and carbon, phosphorus has no significant gaseous phase and its cycling is therefore primarily controlled by geochemical and biological processes within the lithosphere, pedosphere and hydrosphere. In terrestrial ecosystems, P dynamics are strongly influenced by soil mineralogy, sorption–desorption reactions, organic matter decomposition, microbial transformations and land-use practices. High soil fixation limits its bioavailability, while agricultural intensification has created nutrient imbalances and low phosphorus use efficiency. Conversely, in aquatic ecosystems, phosphorus governs trophic status and is a central driver of eutrophication. Inputs from agricultural runoff, wastewater and atmospheric deposition, combined with internal loading from sediments, enhance dissolved inorganic phosphorus (DIP) availability, often leading to algal blooms and hypoxia. Despite its importance, phosphorus management poses significant challenges. Global phosphate rock reserves are finite and unevenly distributed, raising concerns over long-term food security. Furthermore, anthropogenic activities have accelerated P fluxes beyond natural thresholds, contributing to water quality deterioration and ecosystem degradation. Balancing agricultural productivity with environmental sustainability requires innovative management approaches. Emerging strategies include precision fertilization to match crop demand, use of P-efficient crop genotypes, microbial inoculants that mobilize insoluble P and recovery of phosphorus from wastes such as manure, sewage sludge and food residues. Understanding phosphorus dynamics across terrestrial and aquatic systems is therefore essential for developing integrated nutrient management frameworks. By linking biogeochemical processes with socio-ecological challenges, sustainable phosphorus management can reduce environmental risks, enhance resource-use efficiency and secure future food production. This review article will explore the fundamental processes regulating phosphorus cycling, highlight key challenges in both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems and discuss potential management perspectives that integrate ecological and agricultural sustainability.