Managing Ectoparasites in Dairy Animals to Ensure Their Health and Productivity: A Review of Detection, Prediction, and Integrated Control Strategies

Abstract

Ectoparasites remain a major constraint on dairy animal productivity, with adverse effects on animal health and welfare, milk production, growth, fertility, hide quality, and farm profitability. Ticks, biting and nuisance flies, lice, and mites cause direct injury through blood loss, irritation, skin damage, restlessness, and reduced feeding and resting time. They also contribute indirectly to production losses by transmitting or facilitating diseases such as babesiosis, theileriosis, anaplasmosis, eye and udder infections, mange, and secondary skin conditions. This review summarises the major ectoparasites of dairy animals, their economic importance, the factors promoting their spread, and current approaches to detection, forecasting, and control. Climate change, acaricide resistance, intensive animal management, animal movement, poor manure and shed hygiene, and the increased use of susceptible high-yielding breeds are identified as key drivers of ectoparasite pressure. Detection methods range from visual inspection, counting, microscopy, and thermal imaging to molecular assays, biosensors, image recognition, surveillance mapping, and resistance testing. Control strategies include judicious chemical use, integrated parasite management, biological control, tick vaccines, resistant breeds, plant-based and nanoscale formulations, improved husbandry, pasture management, quarantine, and modern fly traps. Digital tools, including connected sensors, artificial intelligence, machine learning, and weather-based forecasting, can strengthen early warning and support more timely interventions. The review emphasises that durable ectoparasite management cannot rely on a single method. Locally adapted integrated programmes, guided by monitoring and supported by farmer training, are needed to reduce production losses, limit chemical misuse, slow resistance development, and improve dairy animal health and welfare.