Integrated Monitoring, Remediation and Management of Soil Pollution: A Comprehensive Review

Abstract

Soil pollution remains one of the most persistent and spatially heterogeneous environmental challenges of the twenty-first century, with direct implications for ecosystem functioning, food safety, water quality, and human health. The complexity of soil as a multiphase medium and the prevalence of contaminant mixtures demand approaches that move beyond isolated measurements and single-technology clean-ups. This review synthesises contemporary advances in the integrated monitoring, remediation, and management of polluted soils, emphasising how site characterisation, risk evaluation, technology selection, and long-term stewardship can be combined into coherent decision pathways. We examine the evolution of monitoring from laboratory-centred sampling to hybrid strategies that integrate rapid field screening, passive samplers, remote sensing, and data-driven spatial modelling. We then evaluate established and emerging remediation options, including physical containment and removal, soil washing, stabilisation with amendments such as biochar, in situ chemical oxidation, and biologically mediated methods. Particular attention is given to contaminants that are difficult to manage with conventional tools, including poly- and perfluoroalkyl substances and microplastics, which illustrate the need for adaptive monitoring and realistic remediation endpoints. Finally, we discuss how sustainable remediation and risk-based land management frameworks support proportional, transparent, and resource-efficient interventions. The review argues that the next generation of soil pollution practice should be defined by integrated evidence, explicit uncertainty management, and performance monitoring aligned to soil functions and land-use objectives.