Household Financing of Primary Education: An Analysis of Out-of-Pocket Expenditure in Tripura, India

Abstract

This study analyses household out-of-pocket expenditure (OOPE) on primary education in Tripura, highlighting socio-economic and demographic disparities in educational spending. Using primary household data, variations in expenditure are examined across gender, residence, housing condition, social category, mother’s occupation, and private tuition status. The findings reveal persistent inequalities: households spend more on male students, urban children, economically better-off families, and those belonging to socially advantaged groups. Mother’s occupation, particularly government employment, significantly influences educational spending, underscoring the importance of women’s economic empowerment. Households not opting for private tuition report higher overall expenditure, indicating substitution between formal schooling quality and supplementary coaching. The study concludes that educational expenditure in Tripura is shaped by income, gender norms, social identity, residential location, and parental employment. Despite public education schemes, affordability remains a key challenge for disadvantaged households, emphasizing the need to strengthen public education, expand targeted financial support, and promote gender-equitable investment to achieve inclusive and quality education under SDG 4.