Economic and Environmental Correlates of Tea Productivity and Household Income among Smallholder Tea Farmers in Nyaruguru District, Rwanda

Abstract

Background: Tea is a major cash crop for smallholder households in Rwanda, but evidence on how economic and environmental conditions together relate to tea productivity and household income at farm level is limited. This study examined these relationships among smallholder tea farmers in Nyaruguru District, Rwanda, for 2021–2025. Methods: A descriptive cross-sectional mixed-methods design was used. All 186 members of the target population (63 tea farmers, 48 community leaders, 10 stakeholders and 65 agricultural workers) completed a structured questionnaire, supplemented by semi-structured interviews and field observation. Data were analysed in SPSS 25 using descriptive statistics, Pearson correlation, multiple linear regression, chi-square tests and binary logistic regression (higher income defined as at least 50,000 RWF per month from tea after costs). Results: Most plots were small (71.5% below 1 ha) and 42.5% of respondents had no access to credit. Two-thirds (64.5%) reported higher household income than in 2021 and 15.1% reported a decline, but 59.2% earned 50,000 RWF or less per month from tea. Farm size, credit access, cooperative membership and training in good agricultural practices (GAP) were positively correlated with monthly green leaf delivery (r = 0.31–0.48) and jointly explained 34.2% of its variance; perceived climate change impact (β = −0.35), soil conservation (β = 0.28) and erosion (β = −0.21) were the leading environmental predictors (R² = 0.289). In logistic regression, higher income was associated with delivering more than 300 kg of leaf per month (OR = 2.84, 95% CI 1.72–4.67), farm size of at least 0.5 ha (OR = 2.25), credit access (OR = 2.00), cooperative membership (OR = 1.77) and GAP training (OR = 1.62), and inversely with severe perceived climate impact (OR = 0.59). Adoption of soil conservation practices was positively but not significantly associated with higher income (OR = 1.49, 95% CI 0.97–2.28, p = 0.067). Conclusions: Tea was associated with improved incomes for most respondents, but benefits are uneven and modest in absolute terms, and are associated with land, credit, collective organisation, training and exposure to climate stress. Policies that combine access to credit and training, stronger cooperatives and climate adaptation are warranted; the cross-sectional, self-reported design limits causal interpretation.