Economic Analysis of Physical Inputs and Human Labour Use in Vegetable Cultivation: A Case of Potato, Pea, and Cauliflower in Punjab

Abstract

Punjab’s reliance on a wheat–rice system faces challenges of groundwater depletion, soil degradation, and stagnant farm incomes. Diversifying into high-value vegetables offers a pathway to sustainable intensification, income enhancement, and rural employment. This study aims to analyse the economics of physical inputs and gender-disaggregated labour in potato, pea, and cauliflower cultivation. This study presents a comprehensive economic analysis of physical input utilization and gender-differentiated human labour deployment in the cultivation of potato, pea, and cauliflower across Punjab, India. Employing a cross-sectional field survey with stratified random sampling, data were collected from 150 respondents in major vegetable-producing districts: Amritsar (potato), Jalandhar (pea), and Hoshiarpur (cauliflower). Sample stratification by landholding facilitated assessment of scale economies, while labour input schedules detailed crop-specific, gender-disaggregated work patterns and wage costs. Results indicate pronounced spatial and operational heterogeneity: potato cultivation averaged 117.3 male and 158.5 female labour hours per hectare, with substantial female participation in harvesting and grading. Pea cultivation saw significant female involvement in picking, weeding, and hoeing activities, whereas cauliflower demonstrated the highest female labour participation, especially during transplanting, earthing up, and harvesting processes. Average total variable costs per hectare were ₹68,762 for potato, ₹59,968 for pea, and ₹50,090 for cauliflower, with large farms displaying marginally greater cost efficiencies. ROVC was highest for cauliflower (₹198,134/ha), surpassing potato (₹109,018/ha) and pea (₹98,197/ha). Findings establish cauliflower as the most profitable crop, affirm economies of scale across all crops, and highlight the critical role of female labour in sustaining vegetable production systems. The study provides empirical evidence to support policy initiatives aimed at optimizing resource use, empowering rural labour, and diversifying Punjab’s agrarian economy through profitable, labour-intensive horticultural systems.