Design and Evaluation of Spawning Pond for Ex-situ Aquaculture of Sand Lobster (Panulirus homarus) in a Land-Based Marine Aquaculture System

Abstract

Background: Sand lobster, Panulirus homarus (Linnaeus, 1758), is among the highest-value marine crustaceans traded in Asia, with commercial aquaculture demand that has outpaced the regenerative capacity of wild stocks. Increasing exploitation rates and dependence on wild-caught puerulus seed have highlighted the urgent need for sustainable hatchery development and controlled Ex-situ breeding systems. Aims: Sand lobster (Panulirus homarus) is an economically important crustacean facing escalating overexploitation across Indonesian waters. The near-total dependence of aquaculture on wild-caught puerulus seed creates severe supply volatility and ecological pressure. This paper aims to: (1) conceptually design an ex-situ spawning pond for P. homarus within a land-based recirculating aquaculture system (RAS); (2) evaluate environmental parameter requirements to support controlled spawning; and (3) identify key technical challenges for implementation. Methodology: A narrative literature review approach was employed in accordance with PRISMA-ScR guidelines. Databases searched included Scopus, Web of Science, Google Scholar, and Elsevier, covering publications from 1989 to 2026. Inclusion criteria encompassed reproductive biology of Panulirus spp., land-based crustacean aquaculture systems, and RAS engineering principles. No original field data were collected. Results and Discussion: The proposed design integrates concrete RAS-connected spawning tanks (recommended volume > 2 m³) with mechanical filtration, moving-bed biofilters, UV sterilisation, and automated water quality monitoring. Target parameters include a temperature of 27–31 °C, salinity of 30–34 psu, dissolved oxygen ≥ 6 mg/L, NH₃ < 0.02 mg/L, and pH of 7.8–8.3. The microenvironment design includes artificial shelters to mimic reef habitat and zonal compartmentalisation to control broodstock sex ratios and enable genetic management. An explicit interspecific comparison (Section 2.7) identifies the biological limits of cross-species data transfer, particularly for photoperiod induction, copulatory mechanics, and larval nutrition, highlighting where P. homarus-specific empirical calibration is required. Engineering parameters (tank volume, stocking density, sex ratio) are classified as preliminary working parameters pending empirical validation. Comparative analysis shows that Ex-situ RAS confers decisive advantages in predation control, year-round production, and biosecurity over conventional in situ cage systems. Conclusion: A concrete RAS-connected spawning tank design (≥ 2 m³) with three-stage filtration, programmable photoperiod control, artificial shelter, and compartmentalised breeding zones is proposed as a feasible conceptual framework for Ex-situ P. homarus broodstock management. Three priority research gaps requiring empirical resolution are identified: (1) spawning induction protocols for P. homarus in closed systems; (2) stage-specific larval diet development including DHA/EPA enrichment and copepod system feasibility; and (3) genetic diversity management under controlled broodstock rotation. Study limitations inherent to a narrative conceptual review are explicitly acknowledged.