Comparative Analysis of Dietary Patterns and Nutritional Gaps among Urban and Rural Post-menopausal Women in Hisar, Haryana, India

Abstract

Menopause is associated with physiological and metabolic changes that may increase nutritional vulnerability and influence later-life health outcomes. Dietary patterns are therefore important for understanding the nutritional status of post-menopausal women. The present study assessed and compared food consumption patterns among urban and rural post-menopausal women in Hisar district, Haryana, India. A total of 200 post-menopausal women aged 45–60 years, comprising 100 urban and 100 rural respondents, were selected for the study. Dietary intake was assessed using a food frequency questionnaire covering cereals, pulses and legumes, fruits, green leafy vegetables, roots and tubers, other vegetables, milk and milk products, fats and oils, nuts and oilseeds, sugars, and miscellaneous food items. Consumption frequencies were scored and compared between the two groups. Wheat was consumed daily by all respondents, confirming its role as the staple cereal. Bajra consumption was higher among rural women, whereas rice was consumed at varying frequencies in both groups. Pulses and legumes, particularly lentil and green gram, were frequently consumed, but soybean intake remained low. Green leafy vegetables and fruits were consumed irregularly, while onion and potato were common components of the regular diet. Buffalo milk and desi ghee were widely consumed by both urban and rural women. Nuts, oilseeds, eggs, meat, and fish were consumed infrequently, reflecting predominantly vegetarian food habits. Sugar and tea were consumed daily by most respondents. Overall, both urban and rural diets were characterised by reliance on cereals, pulses, dairy products, roots and tubers, and fats, with limited inclusion of fruits, green leafy vegetables, nuts, oilseeds, and animal-source foods. The findings indicate dietary gaps that require context-specific nutrition education and dietary diversification strategies.