Challenges and Opportunities for Sustainable Rice Farming in India

Abstract

Rice-based agri-food systems underpin food and livelihood security across India, spanning irrigated Indo-Gangetic Plains (IGP), rainfed uplands, and coastal deltas. Rice sustains livelihoods and food security for hundreds of millions of Indians, yet the systems that produce it face converging constraints—tightening water budgets, climate volatility, environmental externalities, and mounting labour and input costs. This review aims to identify challenges and opportunities in the productivity and sustainability of rice cultivation systems in India. This review synthesises recent peer-reviewed evidence on the biophysical and socioeconomic challenges in India’s rice systems and outlines opportunity pathways that can jointly raise productivity and sustainability. We highlight: (i) water risks aggravated by groundwater decline and irrigation energy costs; (ii) climate hazards, particularly heat, floods and salinity, and their implications for yield stability; (iii) environmental footprints that include methane and nitrous oxide emissions, residue-burning impacts on air quality, and soil and grain contamination (e.g., arsenic hotspots); and (iv) management inefficiencies such as sub-optimal nutrient use, residue handling, and weed pressure in direct-seeded rice. Evidence points to a portfolio of solutions: direct-seeded rice (DSR) and alternate wetting and drying (AWD) to save water and reduce methane without compromising yields; conservation agriculture with on-farm residue retention using seeders that avoid burning; site-specific nutrient management (SSNM) supported by digital tools to improve nitrogen use efficiency; and genetic innovations including submergence, salinity and heat tolerance alongside biofortified and market-preferred varieties. We discuss trade-offs (e.g., AWD and nitrous oxide), adoption barriers (e.g., timely irrigation control, weed management, service delivery), and policy instruments that can accelerate scaling—such as incentives for residue recycling, performance-based irrigation, and outcome-based nutrient advisories. We conclude with research and policy priorities to deliver context-fit, risk-aware intensification that is both climate- and nutrition-smart for India’s diverse rice ecologies.