An Appraisal of the Ecology and Socio-economic Implications of Traditionally Managed Trees Outside Forests (TOFs) in North East India

Abstract

Trees outside forests (TOFs) play crucial roles through their contributions to biodiversity, timber and non-timber forest products (NTFPs), carbon sequestration, climate moderation and livelihood enhancement, aligning with national and global sustainability goals. An analysis of research on TOFs in Northeast India over the past 35 years (1990-2025) reveals a steady rise in scientific attention. Traditionally managed systems such as home gardens, sacred groves and village community forests dominate the region’s landscape, covering about 32,110 km2, with Assam and Arunachal Pradesh accounting for the largest areas. This review synthesizes data from peer-reviewed publications, institutional reports and gray literature retrieved from databases including Scopus, Web of Science and Google Scholar. Studies were categorized by TOF type, state and thematic focus to assess spatial and temporal research trends. Findings indicate that while home gardens and sacred groves are relatively well-documented, community forests remain underrepresented. The deep cultural and traditional roots of TOFs further highlight their significance as heritage systems interlinking people and landscapes. However, major research gaps persist in quantifying ecosystem services, carbon dynamics and livelihood outcomes. Strengthening interdisciplinary and comparative studies across the northeastern states can deepen understanding of their benefits. Recognizing TOFs as an important part of the green cover and including them in regional conservation and development plans is necessary to protect biodiversity, adapt to climate change and support sustainable growth in rural areas of Northeast India.