A Comprehensive Review from Traditional Ethnomedicine to Modern Nanotherapeutics of Cordia macleodii (Griff.) Hook.f. & Thomson

Abstract

Cordia macleodii (Griff.) Hook.f. & Thomson (Cordiaceae, Boraginales), known in central India as Dahiman, is a deciduous tree whose bark, leaves, seeds and wood are used by several Indian communities for wounds, jaundice, fever, hypertension and snakebite, and whose timber is valued for implements and furniture. Experimental interest in the species has expanded from pharmacognostic description to animal pharmacology, computational screening and, most recently, plant-mediated synthesis of metal and metal-oxide nanoparticles. Earlier reviews have largely compiled reported activities without appraising the quality of the underlying evidence, and none has examined the tension between accelerating bioprospecting and the uncertain conservation status of the species. This critical narrative review synthesises peer-reviewed literature, institutional biodiversity records and taxonomic resources identified through structured searches of multidisciplinary, biomedical, biodiversity and regional Indian sources, with the final search conducted on 17 July 2026. The evidence was appraised for botanical authentication, extract characterisation, experimental design, reporting quality and translational relevance, and was organised thematically. Ethnobotanical records show convergence on wound healing, hepatic complaints and household timber use, but most records lack quantitative indices and voucher documentation. Phytochemical knowledge rests mainly on class-level screening, with few structurally characterised constituents and some compound attributions that require independent confirmation. Hepatoprotective, antivenom, wound-healing, antimicrobial and antihyperglycaemic effects have been reported in single-laboratory rodent or in vitro studies using poorly standardised extracts, and no adequately controlled clinical trial or systematic toxicological assessment is available. Silver and copper oxide nanoparticles synthesised with plant extracts show antimicrobial activity against plant pathogens only at high concentrations, with discrepancies between particle-size measurements that limit interpretation. Conservation evidence is contradictory: the global Red List assessment categorises the species as Least Concern, whereas several regional assessments describe it as endangered or critically endangered, and reproductive constraints such as seed predation remain poorly quantified. The species therefore presents credible leads rather than validated therapeutic or technological applications. Progress requires authenticated and chemically characterised material, rigorous pharmacological and toxicological designs, standardised nanomaterial reporting, population-level demographic data and equitable benefit-sharing arrangements with knowledge-holding communities.