Nanotechnology in Site Remediation: A Review of Nanomaterials for Pollutant Removal from Soil and Water

Abstract

Nanotechnology is the use of materials at the 1–100 nm scale with unique properties, applied in environmental science for efficient pollution detection, treatment, and remediation of air, water, and soil contaminants. This narrative review examines the application of nanotechnology in environmental site remediation, with particular emphasis on the mechanisms, effectiveness, and limitations of nanomaterials used in pollutant removal from soil and water systems. A structured literature search was conducted using major scientific databases, including PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar. Relevant peer-reviewed articles, review papers, and selected gray literature published in English were screened using keywords such as “nanotechnology,” “nanomaterials,” “site remediation,” “soil pollution,” and “water remediation.” Studies focusing on the use of nanomaterials for the removal or degradation of heavy metals, organic pollutants, and microbial contaminants were included in the review. The reviewed literature indicates that carbon-based nanomaterials, metal and metal oxide nanoparticles, and polymer-based nanocomposites demonstrate considerable potential in enhancing remediation efficiency through mechanisms such as adsorption, catalytic degradation, advanced oxidation, and nano-enhanced bioremediation. Nanoscale zero-valent iron, titanium dioxide nanoparticles, graphene, and carbon nanotubes were among the most frequently investigated materials, showing improved contaminant removal compared to conventional remediation approaches. Evidence from the reviewed studies also highlights successful applications in both in-situ and ex-situ soil and water treatment systems. Despite these promising outcomes, the literature identifies important challenges related to environmental toxicity, long-term ecological effects, scalability, cost-effectiveness, and regulatory oversight. The review further discusses emerging trends, including the development of sustainable and eco-friendly nanomaterials and the integration of nanotechnology with biological and chemical remediation strategies. Overall, nanotechnology presents significant opportunities for sustainable environmental remediation; however, comprehensive risk assessment and stronger regulatory frameworks remain necessary for safe and effective implementation.