Insecticide Resistance Mechanisms and Strategies for Resistance Management in Agroecosystems: A Review

Abstract

Insecticide resistance is a persistent challenge in agroecosystems because it reduces the effectiveness of chemical control, increases management costs and complicates sustainable pest suppression. This review examines the major mechanisms through which insect pests become less susceptible to insecticides and discusses strategies that can support resistance management in agricultural systems. Resistance develops through inherited changes that allow pest populations to survive repeated insecticide exposure. The mechanisms considered include behavioural avoidance, reduced cuticular penetration, enhanced metabolic detoxification and target-site modification. Cross-resistance and multiple resistance are also addressed because they limit the usefulness of insecticides with related or different modes of action. The review further outlines genetic, biological, ecological, insecticide-related, agronomic and environmental factors that influence the rate and persistence of resistance development. Detection and monitoring approaches are discussed, including conventional bioassays, biochemical and enzymatic assays, molecular diagnostics, resistance monitoring programmes and genomics-based tools. The impacts of resistance are considered in relation to pest management efficacy, crop production costs, environmental contamination, biodiversity and beneficial organisms. Resistance management options reviewed include insecticide rotation, mode-of-action diversification, mixtures, sequential applications, integrated pest management, biological control, biopesticides, host plant resistance, cultural practices and strategies for transgenic crop systems. Emerging tools, including genomics, RNA interference, gene editing, artificial intelligence, precision pest management, predictive modelling and decision-support systems, are evaluated for their potential to improve resistance surveillance and management. Overall, the review emphasises that resistance management requires integrated, evidence-based and adaptable approaches that reduce selection pressure, preserve insecticide utility and maintain effective pest control in changing agricultural contexts.