Comparative Effectiveness of Online and Blended Learning for Digital Literacy Training among Agricultural Extension Workers

Abstract

Background: The integration of digital technologies—from mobile applications to data analytics and smart farming tools—offers unprecedented opportunities to enhance productivity, improve resource management, and increase sustainability. At the forefront of this transition are agricultural extension workers, who play a pivotal role as intermediaries between technological innovation and farming communities. Aims: The study aimed to evaluate and compare the effectiveness of online-only and blended learning interventions in enhancing the digital literacy of agricultural extension workers, particularly in the context of agricultural digital transformation. Methodology: A quasi-experimental, pre-test-post-test control group design was adopted. The study was conducted at the Special Region of Yogyakarta, Indonesia, between February 2025 and July 2025. A total of 158 agricultural extension workers were recruited and systematically assigned to one of three groups: an online-only training group (n=49), a blended learning group (n=54), or a control group (n=55). Participants in the intervention groups received structured training designed to improve essential digital competencies. Digital literacy competency was rigorously measured using a validated assessment tool administered both before and after the interventions. Data analysis was performed using a mixed-design ANOVA. Results: A Difference-in-Differences (DiD) analysis revealed significant positive treatment effects for both the online-only (Effect = +15.15, P = .001) and blended learning groups (Effect = +11.07, P = .004) compared to the control group, with no significant difference found between the two training modalities (P = .37). Critically, a moderation analysis revealed that these treatment effects were highly conditional on participants' baseline knowledge. The training's impact was largest for participants with low initial literacy and diminished to non-significance for those who were already proficient. Conclusion: Both online-only and blended learning are equally effective modalities for significantly enhancing the digital literacy of agricultural extension workers. These findings suggest that resource-efficient, scalable online training can be as impactful as more resource-intensive blended models, offering important strategic implications for the design of future capacity-building programs in the agricultural sector.